The Dark Side of Publishing: Predatory Journals and Congresses Under Scrutiny

Michael Nissen, Independent Medical Publications Professional, USA; Stephanie Daniels, Independent Medical Publications Professional, UK; Johanna Todd, Taylor & Francis Group, UK; Jennifer Fetting, Citrus Health Group; Pravin Bolshete, Sqarona Medical Communications, IN.

Email your questions and comments on this article to TheMAP@ismpp.org.

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Predatory journals. Predatory congresses. The names themselves are ominous. Both continue to be a growing problem in medical and scientific publishing.

Fake journals. Scam journals. They emerge from covert entities that “misrepresent themselves as scholarly journals for financial gain despite not meeting scholarly publishing standards.”¹ The number of predatory journals and articles published therein is increasing, despite awareness, guidelines, and author diligence.² Indeed, the number of articles published in predatory journals increased from 53,000 in 2010 to 420,000 in 2014.² As of May 2022, Cabells’ Predatory Reports listed more than 16,000 predatory journals, with approximately 1,800 added annually since then.³

Accurately and consistently identifying predatory journals remains a challenge, in part, because existing definitions lack precision and concrete criteria. Available databases, lists, and other sources are out-of-date or incomplete (e.g., Beall’s list, the Directory of Open Access Journals [DOAJ]), and others may require fees to access (e.g., Cabells).^4–6 Difficulty distinguishing between predatory journals and legitimate but substantially lacking, low-tier journals (i.e., non-indexed journals typically unaffiliated with professional medical societies/organizations, appropriate editorial boards, or sound publishers) appears widespread. Anecdotal evidence suggests academia has greater difficulty with this than the pharmaceutical industry, where medical publications professionals act as subject-matter experts on good publication practices and compliant project management.

Why do predatory journals even exist? Perhaps it is because the need to publish (“publish or perish”) is stronger than ever. It’s not easy to publish, and it shouldn’t be. Rigorous peer review and scrutiny foster publications that contribute to medicine and science with integrity. The lure of an “easy fix” for career advancement has provided an environment for predatory journals to flourish. Aided (perhaps) by artificial intelligence, so-called “paper mills” create pseudo-research and submit manuscripts in bulk to legitimate and illegitimate journals alike. A recent study identified and evaluated approximately 30,000 suspected “paper mill products” as of March 2024.⁷ Less than 30% of these have been retracted.⁷ In a New York Times article published in conjunction with this research, Dr. Ivan Oransky, the executive director of the Center for Scientific Integrity, and his colleagues used a statistical model to estimate that the actual number of suspicious papers may be 100-times greater—a disconcerting 3 million publications.⁸ As noted, many authors, especially in academia, do not have opportunities to work with publication professionals who can help steer them clear of predatory publishing and other forms of scientific publications fraud.

Predatory congresses are a more recent development and, for now, are less pervasive than predatory journals. They require their own definition and different criteria.⁹ Like predatory journals, predatory congresses are fraudulent endeavors that must be identified upfront and avoided.¹⁰ Far less is known about the incidence and prevalence of predatory congresses, and few lists exist.^9–13 Instances of attendees traveling to meetings only to find meeting organizers absent and all sessions cancelled have been reported. Some speculate that COVID-19 and the advent of virtual-only conferences may have opened the door to predatory conferences.^11–14

Predatory journals and congresses exist by engaging in unethical and fraudulent practices. They harm the integrity of the medical literature and congress presentations, challenge the legitimacy of scientific journals and medical society congresses, and damage the reputations of authors and presenters.

This article provides practical guidance, particularly on how to identify and avoid predatory journals and congresses and builds on previous articles in The MAP.^15,16

Predatory Journals

Defining Predatory Journal Practices

Beginning with librarian Jeffrey Beall’s pioneering work in creating the first list of predatory open-access journals (2011–2017), many resources can assist in identifying predatory journals.⁴ According to an international consensus group of scholars and publishers, “Predatory journals and publishers are entities that prioritise self-interest at the expense of scholarship and are characterised by false or misleading information, deviation from best editorial and publication practices, a lack of transparency, and/or the use of aggressive and indiscriminate solicitation practices.”¹⁷

A Growing Challenge With No Easy Solutions

The scale and impact of predatory journal activity have escalated, as highlighted in an editorial by journal editors and members of the International Committee of Journal Editors (ICMJE), published in early 2025.¹⁸ ICMJE has stopped maintaining a list of journals that adhere to its guidelines.¹⁸ ICMJE found that many journals that had requested to be included in the list, in fact, did not follow ICMJE recommendations. 

When selecting an appropriate target journal for submission, medical publication professionals and authors should consult available resources (Table 1) and consider key questions (Figure 1) to help identify potential predatory practices.

Table 1. Resources for Identifying Predatory Journals

Resource	Content
Beall’s List4 Archival database (2011–2017)	This list was developed to catalogue predatory journals and publishers that exploited the open-access system without proper peer review or editorial standards.
Think.Check.Submit19 Current predatory journal checklist	Provides a concise checklist to identify predatory journals, including links to open-access directories of journals published in Africa, Latin America, and parts of Asia.
World Association of Medical Editors (WAME)20 Predatory journal criteria/guidance provided in 2017	Combines elements of other resources—Beall’s criteria, DOAJ, and Think.Check.Submit—to provide a comprehensive predatory journals algorithm and list of warning signs.
Cabells6 2019 report on predatory journal criteria	Lists predatory journal criteria, ranked as “severe,” “moderate,” or “minor,” and provides an up-to-date evaluation of journals against predatory journal criteria via a subscription service.
InterAcademy Partnership (IAP)11 2022 report on predatory journal practices	Comprehensive report on predatory publishing (journals and congresses). Based on a 2-year study of the issues, including consideration of poor practices by otherwise reputable publishers. Adopts a “spectrum approach” to identifying predatory behaviors applicable to “fraudulent” through to legitimate, quality journals.
Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ)5 Active database (since 2003)	List of legitimate open-access journals

Figure 1. Checklist for Identifying Predatory Journals

What Can Be Done if a Manuscript Is Unintentionally Published in a Predatory Journal?

Although authors have many resources, lists, and tools available, they may still find it hard to identify predatory journals. Further, the behaviors of predatory journals evolve in step with the guidance released on how to avoid them. Broader and deeper awareness and resources to curb submissions and publications in predatory journals are needed.

If, despite best efforts, a manuscript is submitted and published in a predatory journal, it can be nearly impossible to withdraw or remove. Authors should contact the journal and request the manuscript to be withdrawn. However, this is usually ineffective.¹ Some predatory journals may even enforce withdrawal charges.^1,14 Typically, predatory journals have refused to remove an article after receiving requests to withdraw.^1,14 Most often, they do not respond at all.^1,14 Taking legal action can be problematic, as finding contact information and receiving responses from these “ghost businesses” are futile. However, authors should issue such letters to predatory journals to get it “on the record” and potentially dissuade predatory journals.¹

Define and avoid, it’s that simple and it’s that hard. In addition, because predatory journals typically do not provide peer review, the data and content reported in a predatory journal publication cannot be trusted as a robust reference.¹

Predatory Congresses and Conferences—Think Before You Register

Can an Entire Medical Conference Really Be Faked?

Recent years have seen the rise of a newer phenomenon — the predatory congress. Predatory congresses are defined as “for-profit, low-quality academic meetings that exploit researchers’ need to share and publish their research.”¹⁶ The IAP defines predatory congresses as existing on a spectrum from fraudulent to low-quality.¹¹ Similar to predatory journals, these congresses exist to make money and take advantage of less-experienced academics who feel pressured to present at international congresses to advance their careers. Researchers from low- or middle-income countries, or those whose first language is not English, are particularly at risk.¹¹ Unlike predatory journals, little data exist on the number of predatory congresses, although anecdotally, the number of predatory congresses may surpass legitimate congresses.²¹

Avoiding Predatory Congresses

Unfortunately, little can be done once registered for a predatory congress, and the best strategy is avoiding them altogether. In a survey of researchers, 60 of 64 respondents who reported having attended a predatory congress attributed their participation to “lack of awareness of predatory practices.”⁹ Thus, detailing the characteristics of predatory congresses is crucial to helping researchers avoid wasting their time and research dollars (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Characteristics of Predatory Congresses

Below is a checklist of questions (Figure 3) to avoid inadvertently attending a predatory congress. Additional questions to ask before registering for a congress can be found at the website https://thinkcheckattend.org/conference-checker/.²²

Figure 3. Checklist of Questions to Ask to Avoid Predatory Congresses

Discussion and Conclusion

Predatory journals and congresses represent a significant and growing threat to the integrity of medical research, publishing, and scientific dissemination. Despite increasing awareness, the problem continues to increase, fueled by academic pressure, lack of publishing support in some sectors, and the sophisticated evolution of predatory practices. A critical question is whether authors, researchers, and clinicians knowingly submit to such entities. While some may deliberately choose the “easy route” for rapid publication or presentation, a substantial number fall prey because of misinformation, deceptive tactics, or limited awareness.

The only truly effective strategy remains simple in principle yet difficult in practice: avoid, avoid, avoid. As with any scam, prevention is key, because once an article is published in a predatory journal or a researcher registers for a fraudulent congress, the damage (financial, reputational, and academic) is often irreversible.

Current definitions of predatory publishing and congresses are vague, leaving too much room for ambiguity. Many existing resources, including online lists and databases, are either incomplete, behind paywalls, or poorly maintained. Compounding the issue is a notable absence of rigorous discussion of these practices in peer-reviewed literature.

Raising awareness across all scientific and medical communities, not just among those in publishing, is therefore crucial. Universities, academic institutions, research organizations, and health agencies must take a more active role in educating their members. They should collaborate closely with medical publication professionals to ensure that early career researchers, in particular, are equipped to recognize and avoid these unethical and illegitimate practices.

Ultimately, predatory journals and congresses are not merely nuisances. They are fraudulent enterprises that erode trust in science. Protecting the integrity of the scholarly ecosystem requires vigilance, education, and coordinated action. As one well-known, fictional military computer once said, in certain games, “the only winning move is not to play.”

This article is derived from the ISMPP Publication Ethics and Standards Committee of which the authors are members.

Acknowledgments: The authors thank Bhakti Kshatriya, PharmD (Publication Practice Counsel™) for providing valuable review comments to support the development of this article.

References

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